Kippah Yarmulka
Who Are The Jews?The Jews have a 5,750 year history, tracing their origins to Biblical times. Evolving out of a mutual religion, the Jewish humans invented customs, culture, and an ethical system which identified them as Jews no matter of their person religious attitudes. The ancient Jews were both conquerors and the conquered. But they were amid only a handful of ancient peoples to survive, in spite of centuries of persecution, massacres, and their dispersion amid all of the world's nations. Where other peoples assimilated, the Jews adopted some local customs and folkways, but held onto the basic tenets of their religion and culture. This chapter describes the history, religion, customs and culture of the Jewish people. An understanding of "who are the Jews" is a prerequisite to understanding the origins of anti-Semitism, which, in it is most vile form, sowed the seeds of the Holocaust which had as it is extreme goal to be attained the total annihilation of the Jewish people. Judaism Judaism is the religion of the Jews. There are an approximated 14 million followers of the Jewish religion around the world. Most of the world's Jews are concentrated in three countries: the United States (six million), Israel (3.7 million), and the Soviet Union (2.5 million). Other nations with substantial Jewish populations are France (650 thousand), Great Britain (400 thousand), Canada (300 thousand), Argentina (300 thousand), and Brazil (150 thousand). Judaism was the introductory religion based on monotheism, the faith in one God. All of the major Western religions found their roots in Judaism. A central tenet of Judaism is that God, the Creator of the World, made a particular agreement called a covenant (berit in Hebrew) with Abraham, from whom the Jewish persons descended. The covenant provided that the Jews would be blessed with God's love and shelter if they remained unfeigned to God's law and in a faithful manner worshipped Him, and be accountable for sins and transgression versus God and His laws. The Jewish People have ofttimes been referred to allround history as the "Chosen People" because of the faith that the Jews were singled out amid all of the ancient peoples to receive God's laws and His blessings. According to Judaism, the Jews were chosen to be His servants though God is the universal Creator of all humanity. Jews traditionally do not give hope or courage to converts, though converts are accepted after they demonstrate noesis in regards to the faith and their sincerity in accepting it is laws. The tenets of Judaism include a faith in a coming Messiah (derived from the Hebrew, meaning, "the anointed one") who will unite the Jewish persons and lead them under a Kingdom of God on world and fetch peace and justice to all mankind. While Judaism recognizes an "afterlife," it is primarily a "this world" religion. The Creator in Judaistic theology is all-knowing and does not have a corporeal form. Judaism is traditionally decentralized. There is no equivalent to a Pope or other central, global decision-making authority who determines religious dogma or practice. Each Jewish congregation is responsible for it is own affairs and is usually, but not always, led by a spiritual leader called a rabbi. Many rabbis are trained in a seminary or university established for the aim of encouraging religious scholarship and teaching. Each of the major groups of Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist) has it is own establishment in the United States for training rabbis, and each sect, and for that matter, each congregation, maintains it is own practices, traditions, and interpretations of Jewish law. Jewish worship and study oftentimes takes place at a synagogue, and religious services often include prayer and readings from the Torah. Services kept in a synagogue are traditionally led by a rabbi and assisted by a cantor, who leads the cantillating and songs which accompany prayer. Judaism traditionally emphasizes ethical conduct and the treatment of others "as one would wish to be treated themselves." Thus, the system of belief which does subsist through written and oral Jewish law is continually being reinterpreted to respond to innovative developments. The major body of Jewish law is found in the Torah, which comprises of the Five Books of Moses (also known as the Pentateuch) and which forms the primary portion of the Old Testament. This law has been supplemented by oral law and interpretations of the law which integrate the Talmud. There are 613 commandments included in the Torah, which likewise includes the "Ten Commandments." These 613 commandments govern Jewish law covering such areas as philanthropy, sacrifices, prayer, ritual purity, dietary laws, and observances of the Sabbath and other holy days. The Jewish scheme of law, likewise referred to as Halacha, includes a civil and criminal justice system which is followed by observant Jews. Halacha regulates Jewish life, such as marriage and divorce, burial, relationships with non-Jews and education. As is true with adherents of all religions, the degree to which person Jews detect Jewish laws and traditions varies. Among the exercises of observant Jews are: 1. Dietary Laws Strict Jewish law requires that Jews may not eat sure foods, such as pork, sure seafood, or feed without the blood removed, and may not mix dairy and meat merchandise at the same meal. These laws also describe how animals will have to be slaughtered so as to denigrate suffering. 2. Jewish Calendar Jewish law utilizes both a lunar and solar calendar to set the dates of holidays. The dates of holidays and festivals are determined by a lunar calendar, which is based on the phases of the moon. The time from new moon to new moon is 29 days, 12.75 hours. Jewish months are thence either 29 or 30 days. Because a solar year is 365.25 days and a lunar year is when it comes to eleven days shorter (12 times 29.5), adjustments are made to the Jewish calendar to assure that holidays stay within the same season (which themselves are solar-based calculations rather than lunar) each year. A lunar month is inserted as a "leap month" as a part of this adjustment, with a total of seven months being added each 19 years. The Jewish Sabbath and holidays traditionally start out at sunset the evening before the day the Sabbath or holiday is observed. Thus the Jewish holiday of Rosh Hashanah in 1990 was observed September 21st and 22nd, but begun at sunset on September 20th. 3. Sabbath and Festival Observance The fourth of the ten commandments is "Remember the Sabbath Day and Keep it Holy" (Exodus 20:8). Observant Jews do not carry out any work on the Sabbath, which is expended in prayer and religious study. In addition to the Sabbath, Jews both in ancient times and today celebrate holidays and festivals, each of which have their own rituals related with observance. Among these are: Rosh Hashanah (New Year): Rosh Hashanah marks the new year of the Jewish calendar. It is both a joyous and a solemn holiday. Jews around the world do not work and do not attend school on that day. The ram's horn (shofar) is blown ritually to serve as the beginning of ten days of repentance which culminates in Yom Kippur. Yom Kippur: This is the holiest day of the Jewish calendar. Jews do not go to work or to school on Yom Kippur, and refrain from eating or drinking for the entire holiday. It is considered by Jews to be the day in which each person is judged by God, and therefore it is a solemn day marked by prayer and repentance. Passover: Passover is an eight-day festival commemorating the freeing of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage. A ritual feast on the initial two nights of this holiday, called a Seder, includes the recounting of the Passover story. Ritual foods are eaten for the duration of these eight days which are not eaten at other times of the year. Observant Jews do not work or go to school the original two days and the last two days of this holiday. Shavuot (Feast of Weeks): Shavuot is a festival which marks the giving of the Torah to the Israelites at Mt. Sinai by God. It is a two-day holiday which is often times celebrated by having an all night study session on religious topics with friends. Observant Jews do not work or go to school on Shavuot. Succot: Succot is a commemoration of the wandering of the Israelites in the wilderness before they received the Torah. It is likewise a commemoration of the final harvest before the winter rains. It is an eight-day holiday, and observant Jews do not work or go to school the original two days or the last day. It is customary to build a structure called a Succah as a symbol of the types of structures the Israelites lived in while they were wandering in the dessert. Simchat Torah: Simchat Torah commemorates the conclusion and the beginning of the cycle of Torah readings which lasts one year. It occurs the day after Succot ends. Observant Jews do not work or go to school on Simchat Torah. Hanukkah: Hanukkah is an eight-day holiday which marks the victory of the ancient Israelites, led by Judah Maccabee, over the Syrian-Greek army in 165 B.C.E. Traditionally, Jews light a candle for each night of this holiday until there are eight on the eighth day, plus an extra "shammash" candle. In recent times, it has become conventional to interchange gifts on this holiday. Although Hanukkah commonly occurs for the duration of the time of Christmas, it is in no way a comparable holiday to Christmas for the Jews. Purim: Purim is a minor festival of the Jewish calendar which commemorates the triumph of the Jews over a murderous plot by an advisor to King Ahasuerus in Persia in the fifth century B.C.E. It is a joyous holiday and is celebrated by reading the Megillah (a scroll which tells the story of Purim) by baking hamintaschen (triangular-shaped cookies containing jams) and by dressing up in costumes. 4. Ritual Clothing For centuries, observant Jews have dressed differently than citizens of their host countries while engaged in secular and non-secular activities. During prayer, Jewish males have traditionally worn the following: a. Skull cap (Kippah, yarmulka): head covering. b. Phylacteries (Tefillin): these are little boxes containing Torah passages written on parchment with leather straps which are worn on the forehead and left arm for the duration of prayers. c. Fringed Shawl (Tallit): these are worn for the duration of prayer. 5. Life Cycle Events a. Circumcision (Bris) male Jewish children are circumcised on the eighth day after their birth as a sign of a covenant amid Abraham and God. The boy is given his name at this ceremony. b. Bar Mitzvah: at the age of thirteen, Jewish law considers boys to have reached adulthood. A particular service is held in the boy's honor, and he is permitted to read from the Torah for the firs time. The comparable ceremony for girls is a Bat Mitzvah which varies in religious signification depending on the sect of Judaism. c. Marriage and Divorce: at a marriage ceremony, observant Jews sign a marriage contract called a Ketuba. The Ketuba describes the conditions of marriage. The marriage ceremony, as in a heap of other religions, has been ritualized and often times includes the breaking of a glass by the groom to symbolize the destruction of the Temple. Jewish law recognizes divorce, made official by a document called a Get. Even if observant Jews obtain a civil divorce, the spouse is unable to remarry in the absence of obtaining a Get from a Jewish court. d. Death and Mourning: upon the death of a Jew, the body is ritually washed and placed in a coffin for burial, in general the day after death. Loved ones observe a seven-day amount of time of mourning called Shiva at which time religious services are held in the home of the bereaved. The anniversary of the death of a parent (Yahrzeit) is observed by lighting a candle and saying a prayer (Kaddish) in memory. A Brief History of the Jewish People The history of the Jews, as described in the Bible, begins with the patriarch Abraham. Abraham was the initial to forsake the polytheism and idol worshipping of his humans for a faith in one God. Abraham's son, Isaac, and Isaac's son, Jacob, are also considered to be patriarchs by the Jews. The story of Joseph, one of Jacob's twelve sons, is also found in the Bible. He was sold as a slave to the Egyptians by his own brothers. As a result of a famine, the remainder of Joseph's family resettled in Egypt where they and their descendants lived in peace for various generations. However, in approximately 1580 B.C.E., a new Pharaoh (ruler) in Egypt felt threatened by the Jews as well as other peoples who had settled there, so he made them slaves. In the Book of Exodus, the story of Moses and his liberation of the Jews from Egyptian bondage is told. Moses led the Jews out of Egypt after the Egyptians were afflicted with ten plagues. The Israelites then expended 40 years wandering in the desert under Moses' leadership. While in the desert, Moses ascended Mt. Sinai and, according to tradition, returned with the Ten Commandments from God as well as the Torah. Moses passed from physical life before the Israelites entered the "Promised Land" of Israel. Following the death of Moses, the twelve tribes of Israel (one tribe descending from each of Jacob's twelve sons) were led by Joshua into the Promised Land, then populated by the Canaanites. After capturing Jericho, the Israelites systematically conquered the rest of Israel. Challenges from Canaanites and Philistines were repelled, the latter people suffering a defeat at the hands of Samson. The Israelites, seeking an substitute to theocratic leadership, convinced the religious leader at the time, the prophet Samuel, to anoint a king. The initial king was Saul (1020-1000 B.C.E.), a fellow member of the tribe of Benjamin, who won victories over the Ammonites and the Philistines. However, Samuel became disillusioned over the autocratic way King Saul ruled the country. Instead of passing leadership of the nation onto Saul's son, Jonathan, Samuel secretly anointed David, a fellow member of the tribe of Judah, as Israel's second king. David had won renown as the warrior who had slain the giant Goliath. David was the eventual victor of a power struggle, which at long last made him king over all of Israel. During David's reign, the Israelites captured Jerusalem and made it both their religious and secular capital. The heir to King David's throne was Solomon, the son of the King and Bath-Sheba. King Solomon's sovereignty (961-922 B.C.E.) was peaceful. He was noted for lavish building projects, including the First Temple in Jerusalem. There was discontent among the tribes which settled in the north concerning the heavy taxation and forced labor policies of King Solomon, which he felt necessary to manufacture his lavish palaces and public buildings. Following his death, the ten northern tribes broke away and established their own kingdom, while the tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to Solomon's successor, King Rehoboam. The capital of the Northern Kingdom was conventional in Samaria, and the capital of the Southern Kingdom remained in Jerusalem, the historic city in Judah underneath Jewish control. In 722 B.C.E., Samaria was conquered by the Assyrians. The fate of the Jews of Samaria is unknown, and they are referred to as the "Ten Lost Tribes of Israel." In 598 B.C.E., Judah was invaded by King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia. Much of the population of the Israelites was sent into exile in Babylonia. Jerusalem itself fell underneath siege in 586 B.C.E. and was destroyed. The destruction of the First Temple of Jerusalem is commemorated by the Fast of Tishah be-Av, the ninth of the Jewish month of Av. In exile, the Israelites found themselves to be competent to participate in the economic and social life of their new land, and to reorganize and maintain Jewish life. When the Persians conquered Babylon in 538 B.C.E., the Persian King Cyrus permitted all conquered peoples to return to their homelands. About 50,000 Jews returned to Judah, though galore stayed in Babylon, having established a new life there. After assorted decades of delays, the Second Temple was built and committed in 516 B.C.E. Following centuries of relative peace and calm in which the ancient land of Israel was ruled by the Egyptians, the Syrians gained the upper hand in 198 B.C.E. At first, Syrian rule was benign. When Antiochus IV Epiphanes started out his rule, he sought to forbid the exercise of Judaism in favor of Hellenism. He required the erection of a statue of the Greek god Zeus in the Temple, which kindled a revolt. The military commander for the Jews was Judah Maccabee, who overcame a superior strength of highly equipped Syrians to win assorted battles. Following these victories which bordered on the miraculous, Judah Maccabee reentered the Temple, cleansed it of it is desecrations, and rededicated it. The Festival of Hanukkah commemorates these victories. Triumph over the Syrians was short-lived. The Roman Empire engulfed the area, and with brief exceptions, controlled what became known as Palestine for closely 700 years. King Herod (37-4 B.C.E.) ruled over Judah with the sanction of the Roman Senate. He was a master builder, creating magnificent temples, public works, ports and palaces. The ruins of a great deal of of his works, including the reconstructed Second Temple, may still be viewed today. The Jews revolted versus Roman rule in 70 C.E. After a siege, the Second Temple was destroyed (once again, on the 9th of Av of the Jewish calendar) and resistance was crushed except for a company of zealots who took over a fortress at Masada, near the Dead Sea. The Roman army tried for three years to crush that resistance. When defeat of the revolt was inevitable, the defenders drew lots and killed themselves rather than surrender. Jerusalem was restored by the Romans as a pagan city. The focus of Jewish intellectual life following the destruction of the Second Temple was established in Yavneh. Jewish scholars met here and for the duration of the end of the second century and beginning of the third conventional an oral Jewish law to supplement the Torah. This oral law was written down at the end of the second century C.E. by R. Judah ha-Nasi, and is known as the Mishnah. Discussion on the Mishnah was also put to writing, and is known as the Gemara. The Mishnah and Gemara together are called the Talmud. The Jewish scholars in Babylon likewise developed a Talmud, which in the long run supplanted the Palestinian version as the uttermost authority in Jewish legal matters. New centers of Jewish scholarship were established in the diaspora, primarily in North Africa and Muslim Spain by the end of the 10th century. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the fourth century. Jewish legal rights were restricted. During the introductory three centuries of Christianity, the issue that separated Jew from Christian was whether Jesus was the true Messiah. By the beginning of the fourth century, Christianity had evolved with customs, rituals and laws far dissimilar from Judaism. Palestine was conquered by the Arabs in the 7th century. Many Jews served in the Arab armies which conquered the Iberian peninsula, and settled in Spain. For centuries, Jews flourished in Spain and North Africa, and recorded attainments in science, medicine, music, doctrine and culture. Jewish life in the Middle Ages was for the most percentage a story of social and economic isolation, persecution and massacres. Jews were detached both physically and socially from the fabric of life in the Middle Ages and the amount of time following the Middle Ages. Yet they filled an essential niche. Christianity outlawed usury, the lending of money. Jews were permitted to fill this vacuum by acting as moneylenders and financiers. Ghettos At first, Jews in the diaspora segregated voluntarily. This was partly for self-protection, but it was perchance more the result of the necessaries of the Jewish religion: to be close to a synagogue and other religious institutions. The conception of segregating Jews involuntarily behind walls was formulated in ancient times, but it was not actually enforced as a policy until 1462 in Frankfurt, Germany. The idea caught on in the rest of Europe and became the norm in the 16th century. Unlike it is modern 20th century counterpart, the ghetto of 16th century Europe permitted Jews to leave for the duration of the day and do their business. While the ghettos permitted Jews to live peacefully, conditions were often crowded and inadequate. However, the isolation of Jews in ghettos had the effect of eliminating assimilation with the host communities, and preserved and heightened the survival of the Jewish culture. Those governments unwilling even to tolerate Jews who were segregated in ghettos expelled them. At one time or another, all Jews were expelled from England (1290), France (1306 and 1394), Austria (1420), and Spain (1492). There were local expulsions allround Europe including those in Germany. Some expulsion policies were reversed when governments realized that the Jews served a utile purpose. It was not until the Enlightenment (see Chapter 5) that Jews had the prospect to participate in innovative society free from persecution. The fundamentalist acceptance of Jewish law underwent a severe challenge, and the result was the development of reformist movements which ultimately culminated in the institution of Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist movements. Jewish culture produced for 2,000 years in pre-World War II Europe. Jews of both Western and Eastern Europe developed a culture of religious practice, arts and music, language (principally Yiddish), and education. It was an entire culture which the Nazis sought to make extinct. There were distinct divergences in the cultures of Jews who settled in the "East" and "West" in the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. Generally, Jews who settled in Western Europe (France, Holland, Germany, Austria, and Italy, for example) were more assimilated than their "eastern" counterparts of the Soviet Union, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Rumania, and Hungary. They were more likely to speak the language of their host nation, less likely to be religiously observant, more likely to intermarry, more likely to be urban settlers, more likely to be middle-class, more likely to be formally educated, and more likely to affiliate with generic political parties which represented more than just Jewish interests. Western European Jews were more likely to be accepted by their host countries as full citizens. For the most part, they were capable to live side by side with their non-Jewish neighbors, free from the threat of physical attacks and anti-Semitism. Eastern European Jews did not feel safe from pogroms. For a good deal of Jews in Western Europe, they were Jewish by religion, but identified with their host country. Thus, when the Jews of Germany were purposed by the Nazis, most of them had a history of sentiment that they were "German" rather than "Jewish." History of Israel By the end of the 19th century, Jewish nationalism emerged as a prevailing dream. This movement, known as Zionism, prevised a return of all Jews from the diaspora to a Jewish homeland. In the 1880s, Eastern European Jews made their way to what was then called Palestine. This was the introductory Aliyah (immigration) wave, the intention of which was for the most part to establish agricultural settlements. Baron Edmond de Rothschild assisted with funds. The introductory Zionist Conference was kept in Basel, Switzerland, in 1897, under the leadership of Theodor Herzl. It took another 51 years and the experience of the Holocaust, though, to see the Zionist dream become a reality. As a result of this official sanction for a Jewish homeland by the League of Nations, Jews were encouraged to immigrate to Palestine. The Arabs opposed Jewish settlement and there were a good deal of anti-Jewish attacks. In 1905, a second Aliyah wave brought Jews from Russia. Tel Aviv was founded in 1908, the primary all-Jewish city. In 1917, with the British defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Palestine came underneath British rule. The innovative Arab states were conventional at that time. In November 1917, in the Balfour Declaration, the British government declared it is intent to facilitate the "establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people." This Declaration was endorsed by the Supreme Council of the Principal Allied Powers at a Conference in San Remo on April 24, 1920. In 1922, the League of Nations granted to Great Britain a Mandate to secure the establishment of a Jewish homeland, to facilitate Jewish immigration and to give hope or courage to Jewish settlement on the land. By 1929 the Jewish population in Palestine was 160,000, and by the spring of 1936, with the advent of Hitler and increased German immigration, there were close to 400,000 Jews, or in regards to 30 percent of the total population. In 1939, the British, influenced by the Arab uprisings and the Mufti of Jerusalem, issued the White Paper, which fixed Jewish immigration to 10,000 per year for five years, with any further Jewish immigration to be made only with Arab consent. At the close of World War II, the "Palestinian Question" came before the General Assembly of the United Nations. It commended that the British Mandate be ended and that Palestine be separated amidst the Arabs and Jews. On November 29, 1947, the General Assembly partitioned the country into two independent, sovereign states. On May 14, 1948, the British government terminated it is Mandate. The day after, May 15, 1948, the British left the country, and David Ben-Gurion, on behalf of the Jewish Agency, declared the independence of the State of Israel. Contributions of the Jewish People to Civilization As humans and as a people, Jews have had a outstanding affect on civilization, contributing to ideas and culture in each field of humane endeavor. Judaism was a parent religion to Christianity and Islam. Jesus was a Jew, as were his disciples. The Hebrew Scriptures were the foundation of Christianity. Jewish law was accepted as a guide to ethics and morality based on the conception of person conscience. Islam integrated the Jewish conception of one God, the Scriptures, and Jewish prophets. VOCABULARY Assimilation: To receive the culture of another group while giving up one's own. Blasphemy: Words written or spoken which express contempt or irreverence when it comes to God. Circumcision: The remotion of the foreskin of the penis, which is done ritually in newborn Jewish males eight days after birth to symbolize the covenant amid God and Abraham. Covenant: A holy agreement amongst God and man. Diaspora: Countries outside of Israel populated by Jews. Ghetto: A section of a city in which Jews were required to live surrounded by walls. Kosher: From the Hebrew for "proper," correct," or "valid," it ordinarily refers to feed or anything prepared underneath the proper ritual supervision. Monotheism: The faith in one God. Paganism: A follower of a polytheistic religion. Polytheism: The faith in more than one God. Rabbi: A Jewish scholar or religious leader from the Hebrew for "my master." Talmud: Comprised of the Mishnah and the Gemora, it is the oral tradition of Jewish law which has been written down and serves as the authority in Jewish law. Torah: Literally meaning "teaching," it comprises of the Five Books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The term also refers to the parchment scroll in which the hand-lettered text of the Five Books of Moses appears. ACTIVITIES
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